Ireland has been inhabited since Stone-Age times and for more than five thousand years has been the recipient of peoples moving westwards across the European continent. Each new group of immigrants has contributed something to its population and culture and no group ever entirely obliterated the character of the earlier ones. It is these diverse elements that have come together to form the distinctive Irish nation of today.

The population of all Ireland was 8.2 million in 1841 and four-fifths of those lived in rural areas. After the famine of 1846, when many people died and many more emigrated, the population began to decrease, so that by 1930 it was only half what it had been in 1846. One result of this large-scale emigration, which continued throughout the latter part of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century, was that many people of Irish descent have made their homes in other countries. Irish men and women have made a significant contribution to life in Britain, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

From the 1960s population numbers gradually stabilised and between 1971 and 1986 there was a modest annual increase averaging just over one per cent. From 1986, however, the population declined for a few years as a result of renewed high emigration. The total number of people living in the state in 1991 was 3,523,401, a decrease of 17,242 on the 1986 figure. The overall density of population is 50 per square kilometre. There is a strong and continuing movement from rural areas to towns so that 52 per cent of the population now live in urban areas of 1,500 inhabitants or more. The rural population, which is mainly in dispersed, isolated farmsteads, is fairly evenly distributed throughout the country except in the mountainous areas and the peat bogs. Densities as high as 180 per square kilometre occur along the western seaboard, where the farms are small. Low rural densities are associated with the larger farms on the richer land in the east. The influence of Dublin and other urban areas is clearly seen in the above-average densities in their contiguous rural areas.

In Ireland (Republic) Roman Catholics comprise 95 per cent of the community. Other denominations include Church of Ireland (Anglican), Presbyterian, Methodist and a number of smaller Protestant groups. They are strongest in the counties bordering Northern Ireland, especially in Donegal (12 per cent), and in the Eastern Region which includes Dublin, Kildare, Meath and Wicklow (7 per cent). In Northern Ireland 65 per cent of the population is Protestant, mainly Church of Ireland and Presbyterian. They dominate in the three eastern counties of Ulster and comprise 40-50 per cent of the population in the west. There is also a small Jewish community centred in Dublin, Belfast and Cork.

For the great majority of the people in Ireland, English is the language in everyday use, but a quarter of the population claims to be competent in Irish as well. Irish remains the first language in the Gaeltacht (Irish speaking areas), located along the remoter areas of the western seaboard, and in some very small pockets of Irish speakers in West Cork, Waterford and Meath.

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Austria is very mountainous; the Alps run through the country. The main river is the Danube, Europe’s second longest river.

Austria has a temperate climate with cold winters and cool summers.

A number of regions are on the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. These include Nationalpark Kalkalpen and the Neusiedlersee, Seewinkel and Hansag Biosphere Reserve.

Other Biosphere Reserves are Gossenkollesee, Grosses Walsertal, Gurgler Kamm, Lobau and Wienerwald.

Many species of birds live in Austria, especially in the wetlands. Animals are relatively small such as foxes, badgers and deer.

Architecture
Austria has a number of buildings of interest to students of history and architecture. Cities such as Graz, Salzburg and Vienna prospered during the centuries of Habsburg rule and their architectural splendour reflects the power of the Habsburg family. These cities are on the World Heritage List, along with the the eighteenth century Palace and Gardens of Schonbrunn, a summer residence of the Habsburg emperors.

Otto Wagner and Adolf Loos were famous late nineteenth century and early twentieth century architects whose work can be seen in Vienna. The Haas Haus by Hans Hollein completed in 1990 is an interesting example of the Post Modern style.

In Vienna the former Imperial Stables are the location of the new Architektur Zentrum, a joint initiative of the Austrian Federal Government and the City of Vienna. Its aim is to provide Austrian architecture and architectural research with a suitable institutional framework.

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Cyprus consists of two mountainous regions, separated by the Mesaoria plain. The Troodos, the southern mountain group, is taller with the highest peak, Mount Olympus, rising two thousand metres above sea level. The Kyrenia mountain group, in the north, is about half as high; the Pentadaktylos Mountain is very striking with a peak resembling five fingers.

The weather in Cyprus is usually sunny and hot with some rain during the winter months.

Environment
Cyprus has a variety of flora with numerous species of plants. Flowers include cyclamen, cistus, chrysanthemums, orchids, poppies and thyme.

The Larnaca Salt Lake is on the Ramsar list of Wetlands of International Importance. The Salt Lakes near Larnaka and Limassol are home to migrating birds and flamingoes in the cooler season of the year.

Urbanization has led to a decrease in wildlife habitats although there are still a few moufflon (wild sheep) which is Cyprus’ largest animal. Small creatures are bats, lizards, chameleons, geckos, tree frogs, snakes, and praying mantids. Loggerhead turtles lay their eggs on the beach at Lara; there are green turtles and monk seals in the Akamas Peninsula.

Architecture
Remains of Neolithic circular buildings are found near Larnaka and on the foothills of the Troodos. Kition (Larnaka), an ancient city, was rebuilt by the Mycenaean Greeks. There are also Roman architectural remains: the theatres in Kourion (Limassol) and Salamis.

Many Christian churches were built during the Byzantine era (330-1191 AD) such as the eleventh century Angeloktisti church in Kiti, near Larnaka. After the Turkish invasion in 1571, a number of churches were converted into mosques and minarets were added – one such conversion is the Omeriye Mosque.

The French Lusignans ruled Cyprus from the end of the twelfth century to the end of the fifteenth century. During this period Gothic architecture flourished, especially in Nicosia.

The Venetian (1489-1571) occupation left fortified walls in Nicosia (Leftkosia) and Famagusta. In fact, Famagusta has some excellent Venetian architecture. A number of monasteries, such as the monastery at Agia Napa, were also built during this period.

Some Turkish architecture survives from the Ottoman period (1571-1878), in particular the eighteenth century Kamares Aqueduct.

British Colonial buildings, such as, St Paul’s Anglican Church in Nicosia, remain from the British administration of the later nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century.

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The country’s terrain is diverse with plains, mountains and valleys. Rivers include the Danube and the Sava.

Summers are hot and winters are cold.

Environment
National Parks in Serbia are Djerdap National Park, Fruska Gora (in Vojvodina), Kopaonik National Park, Tara National Park and Sara National Park (in the Province of Kosovo and Metohija).

Architecture
Belgrade, the capital city, began as a fortress on the Sava River. Throughout the centuries the fortress was rebuilt and became one of the major strongholds of Europe. Today the fortress is a museum covering the Upper and Lower Towns and Kalemegdan Park.

Like many capital cities, Belgrade has its old town as well as its modern office blocks and hotels. Architectural styles in Belgrade include nineteenth century Neo-Classical, Neo-Renaissance and early twentieth century Art Nouveau.

The first capital of Serbia was Stari Ras. The Star Ras complex, a World Heritage site, includes the monastery at Sopocani. Another World Heritage site is the Orthodox Studenica Monastery that dates back to the twelfth century.

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Puerto Rico has a tropical climate although it is cooler at higher elevations.

Environment
Protected areas in Puerto Rico include Las Cabezas de San Juan Nature Preserve, Pinones Natural Reserve and the Guanica Dry Forest Reserve (a UNESCO International Biosphere Reserve).

Puerto Rico’s Caribbean National Forest is the only tropical rainforest in the US National Parks service. “El Yunque”, as it is known, is home to many species of birds including the Puerto Rican Parrot, one of the world’s rarest birds.

The island of Mona, fifty miles off Puerto Rico, is also a protected area. The island is known for a unique type of iguana that grows to four feet in length. Mona Island is under the management of the US National Park Service and the Puerto Rican Natural Resources Department.

Architecture
There are around four hundred buildings of historic importance in Old San Juan dating back to the time of Spanish rule (1493-1898).

The San Juan National Historic Site is on the World Heritage List; structures include forts, walled fortifications, a mansion built for the first governor of Puerto Rico, and the Cathedral of San Juan.

Today, San Juan is a modern city with the usual high-rise buildings associated with a dynamic economy and a healthy tourist industry.

In 2002 the University of Puerto Rice was awarded a prize for the design of a solar-powered house. Many people in Puerto Rico already use solar power for heating water but the design incorporated a solar electric system as well as a solar hot water system.

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Lithuania’s climate is mild although it can be cold in winter. Summers are warm.

Environment
Over thirty percent of Lithuania is forested. There are many rivers and over three thousand lakes. Five areas of wetlands are Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance: Cepkeliai, Kamanos, Nemunas Delta, Viesvile and Zuvintas.

Regional parks include Dubysa, Kurtuvenai, Pajuris, Rambynas, Salantai, Tytuvenai, Venta and Varniai. National parks are Aukstaitija National Park, Dzukija National Park, Zemaitija National Park, Trakai Historical National Park and Kursiu Nerija National Park including the Curonian Spit.

Animals found in protected areas are elk, deer, foxes, wolves and wild boar. Birds include eagles, hawks, geese, herons, swans and white storks.

Architecture
The Old Town of Vilnius is a World Heritage site. Examples of architecture are Gothic (St. Anne’s Church), Renaissance (Rulers’ Palace of the Lower Castle) and Baroque (Church of SS. Peter and Paul’s).

In the early fourteenth century the Lithuanian ruler, Gediminas (1316-1341), made Vilnius his capital extending the city’s fortifications. Vilnius and Kaunas, Lithuania’s second city, were significant centres of architectural style up until the end of the eighteenth century.

Twentieth century Lithuanian architecture has been influenced by the Modernist style of Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris (1887-1965), the Swiss born architect, known as Le Corbusier.

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Kazakhstan is arid and semi-arid with hot summers and cold winters.

Environment
The environment of Kazakhstan includes steppe, forest, desert and mountainous regions. The Karakum Desert and Kyzylkum Desert extend into Kazakhstan from neighbouring Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan respectively.

The Caspian Sea is to the west and south-west and the Aral Sea is shared with Uzbekistan. Lake Balkhash, in central Kazakhstan is one of the world’s largest lakes. Other lakes include the Kolsai mountain lakes.

Kazakhstan’s nature reserves are the Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve, Almaty Reserve, Barsa-Kelmes Reserve, Bayan-Aul Natural Park, Kurgaldzhino Reserve, Markakol Natural Reserve, Naurzum One Reserve, Ustyurt Reserve and the West-Altai Reserve.

The Kurgaldzhino Reserve was established to protect the pink flamingo and each spring numbers of migrating birds visit the Tenghiz-Kurgaldzhino lakes. Other wildlife found in the protected areas include the saker falcon, golden eagle, brown bear, deer, lynx, wild boar and the endangered snow leopard.

Architecture
The ancient cities of Taraz and Yasy (Turkestan) and the towns of the Otrar Oasis were important commercial and trade centres on the Silk Road, the trade route between Europe and China.

Towns in Otrar have flourished since the first century AD. A four-year UNESCO project aimed to conserve the traditional mudbrick architecture including the fourteenth century Otrar Mosque and Palace.

The Hodja Ahmed Yasavi Mausoleum in Turkestan and the mausoleums of Taraz, including the Aulie-Ata of Karakhan and Aisha-Bibi, are among the examples of Kazakhstan’s best historical architecture.

Modern architecture can be seen in the new capital city of Astana, where buildings were newly constructed and specially renovated for the government’s move. A modern complex in the city’s main square serves as the headquarters for the government of Kazakhstan. The latest development is a “pyramid for peace”, a 253 ft high steel and stone structure, designed by Britain’s Norman Foster. The building is intended as a symbol of peace and cultural centre. (2005).

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Many thousands of years ago the islands separated from the Asian mainland. Lying on the Pacific Ring, a region where the Asian and Pacific plates making up the earth’s crust meet, around the Pacific Ocean, Japan is geologically very active. There are around one hundred and sixty volcanoes in the area of which around a third are active. Mount Fuji, the highest mountain in Japan, was last active in 1707. In the last one hundred years Japan has suffered from more than twenty major earthquakes, such as the quake in Kobe. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis and typhoons are all too familiar to the Japanese people.

The islands are very mountainous; between seventy and eighty percent of Japan is occupied by hills and mountains. The towns and cities are mainly squeezed into the flat lands along the coast, with very high levels of population density.

The climate is tropical in the south and cooler in the north. Humidity is high in the western regions of the main islands, with heavy rainstorms. On the Pacific coast the weather is less extreme. Winter snowfalls are heavy in the north.

Environment
Japan’s forests cover almost seventy percent of the country. The forests contain a wide variety of trees: cedar, conifer, willow, beech, banyan, camphor and mulberry trees. The cherry with its spring blossom is a particular favourite, although the national flower is the chrysanthemum. Japan’s other flowering plants include wisteria, azaleas, peony and the lotus.

Birds native to Japan include cranes, storks, swallows and sparrows. These are among the birds of Japan which can be seen in prints by artists such as Hokusai. Wildlife includes deer, bears, mink, otters, squirrels and other small animals. The macaque monkeys of Honshu are famous as a tourist attraction.

It is now recognized that Japan’s rapid economic development after the war has damaged the environment: native plant species are facing extinction and rivers have been polluted. The Environment Agency was established in 1971 to tackle these problems. In 1988 a law was passed regulating the manufacture and use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which damage the ozone layer. Measures have been taken to improve the environmental situation: such as the Recycling Law of 1991 and the Basic Environment Law of 1993. Japan has a framework to deal with all environmental and conservation issues.

Architecture
Japanese architecture has always drawn on the country’s great resources of forest timber. Houses, temples and castles and other traditional buildings were made from wood. The Horyuji Buddhist Temple near Nara is said to be one of the world’s oldest wooden buildings. Timber buildings, though at risk from fire, are less of a hazard in earthquakes.

Japan’s modern buildings are designed and built so that they can withstand earthquakes, sometimes by allowing movement and flexibility.

The traditional house was built with sliding room dividers as internal walls and its interior design is very clear and uncluttered.

Because of the high population density and the high cost of land, most Japanese people live in small homes or apartments. A famous use of small spaces is the capsule hotel found in Tokyo and other big cities. Instead of a hotel room, visitors sleep in cells with just enough room for a bed and a miniature television.

Japan has some of the world’s most dramatic new architecture. Architects such as Richard Rogers, Norman Foster and Philippe Starck all have exciting new buildings in Japan’s major cities.

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Afghanistan’s climate is arid to semiarid. It has cold winters and dry, hot summers, depending on altitude.

Environment
Afghanistan is a landlocked country with mountains, valleys, plains, deserts and rivers.

Cedar, fir, pine and oak trees grow in its forested areas. Wildlife includes gerbils, foxes, goats, sheep, deer, wild cats, bears, jackals and wolves.

Deforestation and desertification are among the country’s environmental problems.

Architecture
Over two decades of war in Afghanistan has left the country with a housing problem, especially in Kabul. Since the fall of the Taliban, over a million refugees have arrived in the capital. Many people live in overcrowded houses, while others live in makeshift shelters such as tents and abandoned buildings. A plan is currently underway to build more apartments in the city but many fear they will not be able to afford them. (2002)

World Heritage sites in Afghanistan have also been listed on “World Heritage in Danger”. Afghanistan’s World Heritage sites are the Minaret of Jam and the Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Baniyan Valley. The Baniyan Valley site suffered a great loss in March 2001 when the Taliban destroyed two standing Buddha statues.

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The terrain consists of the Andes Mountains, highland plateau (Altiplano), hills and the lowland plains of the Amazon Basin. Rivers include the Beni and the Mamore. Lake Titicaca, shared with Peru, is the largest lake in South America.

Bolivia is within the tropics but the climate varies with altitude: tropical to cold and semiarid.

Environment
There are over twenty national parks and protected areas in Bolivia. Madidi National Park, founded in 1995, is said to be one of the world’s largest reserves.

Noel Kempff Mercado National Park is on the World Heritage list. The Park comprises of almost four million acres of forests, savannahs and wetlands.

Bolivia has many species of birds: caracaras, flycatchers, hawks, herons, kingfishers, macaws, parakeets, toucans and woodpeckers. Animals in Bolivia include the giant anteater, giant armadillo, jaguar, howler monkey, spider monkey and tapir.

Architecture
The city of Tiwanaku, the capital of a pre-Hispanic empire, was inscribed as a World Heritage site in 2000. The buildings are examples of ceremonial and public architecture of the Tiwanaku civilization.

The City of Potosi, dating back to the discovery of silver in the 1540s, is also on the World Heritage list.

The Historic City of Sucre, another UNESCO site, began as an early Spanish town. A number of sixteenth century religious buildings have been preserved. Other World Heritage buildings in Bolivia are the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos, mainly built in the eighteenth century.

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